13,683
edits
Changes
no edit summary
Beta-glycosidase enzymes can be added artificially, however there has been much interest in the natural capability of microorganisms to produce beta-glycosidases. There are two major categories of glucosidase activity: endogenous and exogenous. Endogenous enzymatic activity takes place inside of the cell, and exogenous enzymatic activity takes place outside of the cell. Microorganisms that show endogenous glucosidase activity have been shown not to be effective in alcoholic fermentation due to not tolerating low pH (optimum pH of 5), glucose, and ethanol. Generally, the flavorless glycosides remain unaffected by yeast fermentation, leaving them unused as a potential source for flavor and aroma <ref name="Winterhalter"></ref>.
Exogenous beta-glycosidase activity has been shown to be much more effective at releasing aglycones from glycosidesin bacteria and fungi. For glycosides which contain a glucose, which is the majority, beta-glucosidase cleaves the sugar, thus releasing the aglycone. For glycosides that contain disaccharides, usually another enzyme must be present to first break down the disaccharide before the beta-glucosidase can release the aglycone (beta-xylosidase, alpha-arabinosidase, alpha-rhamnosidase, or beta-apiosidase) <ref name="Winterhalter"></ref>. However, glycosides in tea leaves that contain disaccharide sugars have been observed to be broken down without the use of these other enzymes; the beta-glucosidase cleaves the aglycone from the disaccharide on its own. Some species of yeast (''Debaryomyces castelli'', ''D. hansenii'', ''D. polymorphus'', ''Kloeckera apiculata'', ''Hansenula anomala'', and ''Brettanomyces'' spp), bacteria (''Oenococcus oeni''), and fungi (''Aspergillus niger'') have been found to have varying degrees of beta-glucosidase activity, however several inhibitors for glucosidase activity vary for different strains of microbes and include the presence of glucose is often an inhibitor of this activity for various microbe species , pH, temperature, ethanol, and phenols <ref name="Maicas"></ref><ref name-"Mansfield">[https://theses.lib.vt.edu/theses/available/etd-07262001-172630/unrestricted/Mansfieldthesis.pdf Quantification of Glycosidase Activities in Selected Strains of Brettanomyces bruxellensis and Oenococcus oeni. A. K. Mansfield, B. W. Zoecklein and R. S. Whiton. 2001.]</ref>. For example, for some strains of ''O. oeni'', as little as 10mg/L of glucose is enough to inhibit beta-glucosidase activity, or the presence of alcohol or typical wine pH (3.0 - 4.0) was enough to inhibit. Other strains of ''O. oeni'' are not inhibited by some or all of these inhibitors <ref>[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0168160505003296 A survey of glycosidase activities of commercial wine strains of Oenococcus oeni. Antonio Grimaldi, Eveline Bartowsky, Vladimir Jiranek. 2005.]</ref>.
====Activity of Brettanomyces and Saccharomyces====
One study screened the beta-glucosidase activity of several strains of ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'', ''Saccharomyces pastorianus'', and ''Brettanomyces'' spp <ref name="Daenen1">[http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2672.2007.03566.x/full Screening and evaluation of the glucoside hydrolase activity in Saccharomyces and Brettanomyces brewing yeasts. L. Daenen, D. Saison, F. Sterckx, F.R. Delvaux, H. Verachtert, G. Derdelinckx. 2007.]</ref>. None of the lager brewing strains showed beta-glucosidase activity. Out of 32 strains of ''S. cerevisiae'', only one strain (a wine strain called "U228") showed beta-glucosidase activity, however its activity was repressed in the presence of glucose. This indicates that most ''S. cerevisiae'' strains do not have the capability of producing beta-glucosidase, but it is possible that some very few strains can<ref name="Daenen1"></ref>. However, beta-glucosidase activity for ''S. cerevisiae'' is inhibited by pH levels of wine and sour beer (optimal at pH 5) <ref name="Mansfield"></ref>. All strains of ''S. cerevisiae'', however, did release another enzyme called beta-glucanase, which led to varying degrees of breaking down some smaller glycosides found in hops containing the aglycones methyl salicylate, 1-octen-3-ol, and cis-3-hexen-1-ol, but not linalool. None of the ''B. bruxellensis'' strains showed this activity, but the only tested strain of ''B. custersianus'' and both of the ''B. anomala'' strains tested did show cell-associated (endogenous) beta-glucosidase activity. In particular, the ''B. custersianus'' strain was tested against glycosides from hops, in which case high amounts of the algycones linalool (citrus, orange, lemon, floral <ref>[http://www.thegoodscentscompany.com/data/rw1007872.html "Linalool." The Good Scents Company. Retrieved 05/12/2016.]</ref>), methyl salicylate (minty, wintergreen <ref>[http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/2015/09/methyl-salicylate-oil-wintergreen-podcast "Methyl salicylate." Chemistry World. Retrieved 05/12/2016.]</ref>), 1-octen-3-ol (mushroom, earthy <ref>[http://www.thegoodscentscompany.com/data/rw1024051.html "1-octen-3-ol." The Good Scents Company. Retrieved 05/12/2016.]</ref>) and cis-3-hexen-1-ol (grassy, melon rind <ref>[http://www.thegoodscentscompany.com/data/rw1005932.html "(Z)-3-hexen-1-ol." The Good Scents Company. Retrieved 05/12/2016.]</ref>) were released. The beta-glucosidase activity remained the same when fermented alone, or when fermented with ''S. cerevisiae''. ''B. custersianus'' has been isolated from the later stages of lambic fermentation, and it is thought that its ability to produce beta-glucosidase, which gives it the ability to ferment cellobiose and cellotriose, is a possible adaptation from living in oak barrels <ref name="Daenen1"></ref>.
The same strain of ''B. custersianus'' was screened for beta-glucosidase activity and aglycone byproducts during the refermentation of sour cherries in beer (although a very small amount of the byproducts were manufactured by the yeast as a byproduct of fermentation, particularly linalool, alpha-terpineol, alpha-ionol, and a precursor that leads to beta-damascenone under low pH conditions). Different portions of the cherries were tested: whole cherries with stones (pits), cherry pulp without stones, cherry juice without stones or other solids from the fruit, and the stones alone. Benzaldehyde (almond, cherry stone flavor) was produced during fermentation in all cases, and reduced to benzyl alcohol (almond flavor) and benzyl acetate (fruity, jasmin flavor) by the end of fermentation. There were higher levels of these benzyl based compounds in the whole cherries and cherry stone alone samples, indicating that cherry stones make a big impact on the almond flavors found in cherry sour beers. Methyl salicylate, linalool, alpha-terpineol (pine), geraniol (rose, lime, floral) and alpha-ionol (floral, violet), eugenol (spicy, clove, medicinal) and isoeugenol (fine delicate clove) levels increased in all forms of cherries added except for stones alone, indicating that these aglycones are more present in the flesh and juice of the cherries <ref name="Daenen2"></ref>.
Many strains of ''B. bruxellensis'' have been found to have varying degrees of intracellular (endogenous) or "parietal" ("parietal" means that the activity was at the cell walls) beta-glucosidase activity as well <ref>[http://link.springer.com/article/10.1038/sj.jim.2900720 Quantification of glycosidase activities in selected yeasts and lactic acid bacteria. H McMahon, B W Zoecklein, K Fugelsang, Y Jasinski. 1999.]</ref><ref name="Mansfield"></ref>. Some ''Brettanomyces'' strains may only be capable of beta-glucosidase activity, and not the other enzymes which are needed to break down disaccharide type glycosides. Additionally, cell death and autolysis can result in an increase in beta-glucosidase activity in solution due to the cell contents being released into solution <ref name="Mansfield"></ref>.
====See Also====