Scientific Publications

A listing of peer reviewed scientific publications and non-peer reviewed scientific studies that focus on subject material that is relevant to sour brewing. Some good journals to keep an eye on for new publications about sour and funky beers include Cerevisia, The Journal of the Institute of Brewing, and The International Journal of Food Microbiology.

Brettanomyces

Much of the scientific research done to date on Brettanomyces approaches the yeast from the view point of wine production and treating the yeast as a spoilage organism. These papers can still be useful to brewers interested in using Brett while recognizing the possible preconceptions, motivations, and biases that this viewpoint might contribute. Other groups, notably those led by a couple of Belgian researchers as well as Chad Yakobson's masters work, have studied Brett from the viewpoint of a desired component in certain beer fermentations.

Title	Authors	Date	Note
Pure Culture Fermentation Characteristic of Brettanomyces Yeast Species and Their Use in the Brewing Industry	Yakobson	2011
Screening and evaluation of the glucoside hydrolase activity in Saccharomyces and Brettanomyces brewing yeasts	Daenen, Saison, Sterckx, Delvaux, Verachtert, Derdelinckx	2008
Physiological, biochemical and molecular characterisation of hydroxycinnamic acid catabolism by Dekkera and Brettanomyces yeasts	Victoria Harris	2010	PhD thesis. HCA's are the precursors to phenolic compounds in beer. See phenol production in Brettanomyces
Evaluation of the glycoside hydrolase activity of a Brettanomyces strain on glycosides from sour cherry (Prunus cerasus L.) used in the production of special fruit beers	Daenen, Saison, Sterckx, Delvaux, Verachtert, Derdelinckx	2008
Survey of enzyme activity responsible for phenolic off-flavour production by Dekkera and Brettanomyces yeast	Harris, Ford, Jiranek, Grbin	2009
Genome Survey Sequencing of the Wine Spoilage Yeast Dekkera (Brettanomyces) bruxellensis	Agnolucci, Vigentini, Capurso, Merico, Tirelli, Compagno, Foschino, Nuti	2009
Dekkera and Brettanomyces growth and utilisation of hydroxycinnamic acids in synthetic media	Harris, Ford Jiranek, Grbin	2008
The effect of sugar concentration and temperature on growth and volatile phenol production by Dekkera bruxellensis in wine	Barata, Pagliara, Piccininno, Tarantino, Ciardulli, Malfeito-Ferreira, Loureiro	2008
Formation of 4-vinyl and 4-ethyl derivatives from hydroxycinnamic acids: Occurrence of volatile phenolic flavour compounds in beer and distribution of Pad1-activity among brewing yeasts	Vanbeneden, Gils, Delvaux, Delvaux	2008
Release of hydroxycinnamic acids and formation of flavour-active volatile phenols during the beer production process	Nele Vanbeneden	2007	PhD Thesis
Localization and Characterization of α-Glucosidase Activity in Brettanomyces lambicus	Shantha Kumara, De Cort, Verachtert	1993
Esterase Activity in the Genus Brettanomyces	Spaepen and Verachtert	1982	Brett ester production and destruction

Lactic Acid Bacteria

Title	Authors	Date	Note
125th Anniversary Review: Bacteria in brewing: The good, the bad and the ugly	Vriesekoop, Krahl, Hucker, Menz	2012
Fundamentals of Beer and Hop Chemistry	Keukeleire	August 12, 1998	Useful information regarding how beta acids and iso-alpha acids inhibit/effect the grown of gram-positive bacteria and LAB.
Beer spoilage bacteria and hop resistance	Sakamoto and Konings	2003	Another useful paper for antimicrobial properties of hops and bacterial resistance.
Localization and Characterization of α-Glucosidase Activity in Lactobacillus brevis	De Cort, Shantha Kumara, Verachtert	1994

Lambic and Spontaneous Fermentation

Title	Authors	Date	Note
The Microbial Diversity of Traditional Spontaneously Fermented Lambic Beer]	Spitaels, Wieme, Janssens, Aerts, Daniel, Van Landschoot, De Vuyst, Vandamme	April 18, 2014
BELGIAN ACIDIC BEERS Daily Reminiscences of the Past	Verachtert and Denderlinckx	2014
Taming Wild Yeast: Potential of Conventional and Nonconventional Yeasts in Industrial Fermentations	Steensels and Verstrepen	2014
Microbiota and metabolites of aged bottled gueuze beers converge to the same composition	Spitaels, Kerrebroeck, Wieme, Snauwaert, Aerts, Van Landschoot,De Vuyst, Vandamme	2014
Brewhouse-Resident Microbiota Are Responsible for Multi-Stage Fermentation of American Coolship Ale	Bokulich, Bamforth, Mills	April 18, 2012
Characterization of aroma and flavor compounds present in lambic (gueuze) beer	Katherine Witrick	2012	PhD Thesis
Occurrence of sotolon, abhexon and theaspirane-derived molecules in Gueuze beers. Chemical similarities with ‘yellow wines’	Scholtes, Nizet, Colin	2012
Fermentation Studies on the Traditional Russian Drink “Sourish Shchi”	Martens, Iserentant, Verachtert	1997
Microbiological Aspects of a Mixed Yeast—Bacterial Fermentation in the Production of a Special Belgian Acidic Ale	Dankovtsev, Vostrikov, Markina	2002
Synthesis of Aroma Compounds By Wort Enterobacteria During the First Stage of Lambic Fermentation	Martens, Dawoud, Verachtert	1992
Wort Enterobacteria and Other Microbial Populations Involved During the First Month of Lambic Fermentation	Martens, Dawoud, Verachtert	1991
Identification of Lambic Superattenuating Micro-Organisms By the Use of Selective Antibiotics	Shantha Kumara and Verachtert	1991
Fatty Acids and Esters Produced During the Spontaneous Fermentation of Lambic and Gueuze	Spaepen, Van Oevelen, Verachtert	1978
Microbiological Aspects of Spontaneous Wort Fermentation in the Production of Lambic and Gueuze	Van Oevelen, Spaepen, Timmermans, Verachtert	1977	The source of the data used to create the Apte chart of which microbes are active at a given time in Lambic Fermentation as presented in his 2004 slideshow and in Wild Brews.
Synthesis of Aroma Components During the Spontaneous Fermentation of Lambic and Gueuze	Van Oevelen, De L'Escaille Verachtert	1976

Oxygen Permeability

Title	Authors	Date	Note
Measurement of Oxygen Transfer Rates for Carboy Closures and Air Locks	Gibbs	November 10, 2011	Study performed by Better Bottle
How to Make Sour Ale: an inquiry	Apte	2004	Not a study, but contains Apte's charts for oxygen permeability and other notable references.